Clothing & Textiles

Azo dyes are the largest class of synthetic colourants used in textile manufacture — they account for more than 60% of all dyes used in clothing, producing the full spectrum of reds, oranges, yellows, browns, and some…

Azo dyes are the largest class of synthetic colorants used in textile manufacturing, responsible for 60–70% of all textile dyeing globally. The health concern with textile azo dyes is their reductive cleavage under ce…

"Bamboo fabric" is almost universally bamboo viscose — not mechanically extracted bamboo fibre, but bamboo cellulose dissolved in highly toxic carbon disulphide (CS₂) solvent and regenerated as a synthetic fibre. Carb…

Chlorinated paraffins are a family of synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbons produced in enormous quantities (over 1 million tonnes per year globally) as flame retardants, plasticisers, and extreme-pressure lubricant addi…

Hexavalent chromium — a potent carcinogen and the most common cause of occupational contact dermatitis globally — forms in leather goods tanned using chromium salts, with shoes, belts, watch straps, and bags creating …

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most widely studied member of the phthalate family — a group of plasticisers that make PVC soft and flexible. It is classified as a reproductive toxicant Category 1B and a subs…

Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is a biocide — not a dye or plastic additive — that was used as an anti-mould preservative in small sachets placed inside furniture and shoe packaging to prevent mould growth during long sea sh…

Disperse dyes are a class of water-insoluble dyes designed for dyeing hydrophobic synthetic fibres including polyester, nylon, acetate, and triacetate. They are suspended rather than dissolved in the dye bath and are …

Disperse dyes are the colourants used to dye synthetic fibres including polyester, nylon, acetate, and spandex/elastane — they are called "disperse" because they are only sparingly soluble and must be applied as a fin…

UK fire safety regulations require children's nightwear to meet strict flammability standards — garments must resist ignition or self-extinguish, a requirement met either by inherently flame-resistant fibres (polyeste…

Formaldehyde-releasing resins applied to clothing to create wrinkle-resistant, anti-shrink, and permanent-press finishes off-gas formaldehyde during wear and washing, causing skin sensitisation, respiratory irritation…

Crease-resistant, easy-care, wrinkle-free, and permanent-press cotton textiles owe their performance to N-methylol resin finishes — compounds that cross-link cellulose fibres to prevent wrinkle formation. These resins…

Leather tanning converts raw animal hides into durable material, and approximately 80% of global leather production uses chromium(III) sulphate as the tanning agent. Chromium(III) is relatively non-toxic, but it can b…

Hormone-disrupting surfactants used extensively in textile manufacturing that remain as residues in finished garments, releasing nonylphenol — a potent synthetic oestrogen — during wear and washing into skin contact a…

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) are nonionic surfactants widely used in textile manufacturing as wetting agents, detergents, and emulsifiers during dyeing, scouring, and finishing processes. Though banned from use in E…

Optical brighteners — also called fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) — are synthetic UV-absorbing compounds added to laundry detergents to make white fabrics appear brighter and whiter by converting ultraviolet light…

Optical brightening agents (OBAs), also called fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs), are synthetic compounds added to white and light-coloured textiles, laundry detergents, and paper to make them appear whiter and brig…

Perchloroethylene (PERC, tetrachloroethylene) is the dominant solvent used in dry cleaning — an estimated 80% of UK dry cleaners still use PERC as their primary cleaning agent. PERC dissolves grease, oils, and many or…

PFAS are a family of over 12,000 synthetic chemicals defined by their extremely strong carbon-fluorine bonds — the strongest in organic chemistry. This is why they do not break down: in the environment, or in the huma…

Durable water repellent (DWR) and stain-resistant finishes on everyday clothing — not just outdoor sportswear, but children's school uniforms, suit fabrics, ties, carpet-like flooring in vehicles, and seat upholstery …

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been used as durable water repellent (DWR) coatings on outdoor clothing, rainwear, sportswear, and equipment since the 1990s. The original long-chain PFAS (PFOA and PFOS…

Durable water repellency (DWR) coatings on waterproof jackets, hiking boots, tents, ski gear, and performance sportswear are almost universally applied using per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). These "forever …

Durable water repellent (DWR) treatments — sold as sprays, wash-in liquids, and factory-applied coatings for waterproof jackets, boots, tents, and outdoor gear — have historically been based on long-chain PFAS (C8 flu…

Phthalates are a family of plasticisers and fragrance fixatives found in an enormous range of products — from PVC flooring to nail varnish to the fragrance in shampoo. They are among the most extensively studied endoc…

Polyurethane (PU) and PVC-coated faux leather — the synthetic leather used in "vegan leather" jackets, handbags, shoes, and clothing accessories — is plasticised with phthalates to achieve its characteristic flexible,…

Every washing machine cycle involving synthetic clothing releases hundreds of thousands of microplastic fibres into wastewater — a single synthetic garment can shed more than 700,000 fibres per wash. These fibres — pr…

Fabric conditioners (softeners) achieve their softening effect by depositing a thin layer of quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) onto fibre surfaces during the rinse cycle — these positively charged molecules adsorb…

Silver nanoparticles are incorporated into sportswear, socks, workout clothing, and childrenswear under marketing claims including "antibacterial," "odour-resistant," "hygienic," and "antimicrobial." Silver ions relea…

Synthetic musks are a diverse group of fragrance chemicals used to impart a lasting musky scent to fabric softeners, laundry detergents, cleaning products, and personal care items. The older nitromusk class (including…

Every wash of synthetic clothing releases hundreds of thousands of plastic microfibres into wastewater that pass through sewage treatment, accumulate in oceans, food chains, and ultimately human tissue, representing o…

Thiurams and carbamates are chemical accelerants used in the vulcanisation of natural and synthetic rubber — they are essential to the manufacturing process that gives rubber its elasticity and durability. They are pr…